References
Newell, A. et al. Human Problem Solving Vol. 104 (Prentice-Hall, 1972).
Gobet, F., de Voogt, A. & Retschitzki, J. Moves in Mind: The Psychology of Board Games (Psychology Press. 2004).
Gough, C. Number of gamers worldwide 2021. Statista 13, 2020 (2019).
Suchow, J. W., Griffiths, T. & Hartshorne, J. K. Workshop on scaling cognitive science. Cognitive Science Society, https://cognitivesciencesociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/cogsci20a-W6-doc.pdf (2020).
Brändle, F., Allen, K. R., Tenenbaum, J. & Schulz, E. Using games to understand intelligence. Proc. Ann. Meeting Cogn. Sci. Soc. 43, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/17z2q92d (2021).
DePaulis, T. Board games before Ur? Board Game Stud. J. 14, 127–144 (2020).
Greitemeyer, T. & Mügge, D. O. Video games do affect social outcomes: a meta-analytic review of the effects of violent and prosocial video game play. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 40, 578–589 (2014).
Bertram, L. Digital learning games for mathematics and computer science education: the need for preregistered RCTs, standardized methodology, and advanced technology. Front. Psychol. 11, 2127 (2020).
Manzano-León, A. et al. Between level up and game over: a systematic literature review of gamification in education. Sustainability https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042247 (2021).
Fleming, T. M. et al. Serious games and gamification for mental health: current status and promising directions. Front. Psychiatry https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00215 (2017).
Arjoranta, J. How to define games and why we need to. Comput. Games J. 8, 109–120 (2019).
Stenros, J. The game definition game: a review. Games Cult. 12, 499–520 (2017).
Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations: The German Text, with an English Translation by G.E.M. Anscombe, P.M.S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte 4th edn (Blackwell, 2009).
Aarseth, E. in From Literature to Cultural Literacy (eds Segal, N. & Koleva, D.) 180–188 (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014).
Gentner, D. Structure-mapping: a theoretical framework for analogy. Cogn. Sci. 7, 155–170 (1983).
Spelke, E. S., Breinlinger, K., Macomber, J. & Jacobson, K. Origins of knowledge. Psychol. Rev. 99, 605–632 (1992).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Allen, K. R., Smith, K. A. & Tenenbaum, J. B. Rapid trial-and-error learning with simulation supports flexible tool use and physical reasoning. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 29302–29310 (2020).
Dubey, R., Agrawal, P., Pathak, D., Griffiths, T. L. & Efros, A. A. Investigating human priors for playing video games. PMLR 80, 1349–1357 (2018).
Pouncy, T. & Gershman, S. J. Inductive biases in theory-based reinforcement learning. Cogn. Psychol. 138, 101509 (2022).
Tsividis, P. A. et al. Human-level reinforcement learning through theory-based modeling, exploration, and planning. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.12544 (2021).
van Opheusden, B. et al. Expertise increases planning depth in human gameplay. Nature 618, 1000–1005 (2023).
Coutrot, A. et al. Global determinants of navigation ability. Curr. Biol. 28, 2861–2866 (2018).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Wu, S. A. et al. Too many cooks: Bayesian inference for coordinating multi-agent collaboration. Top. Cogn. Sci. 13, 414–432 (2021).
Carroll, M. et al. On the utility of learning about humans for human–AI coordination. Proc. 33rd International Conf. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. (eds Wallach, H. M. et al.) 5174–5185 (Curran Associates, 2019).
Kumar, A. A., Steyvers, M. & Balota, D. A. Semantic memory search and retrieval in a novel cooperative word game: a comparison of associative and distributional semantic models. Cogn. Sci. 45, e13053 (2021).
McCarthy, W. P., Hawkins, R. D., Wang, H., Holdaway, C. & Fan, J. E. Learning to communicate about shared procedural abstractions. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.00077 (2021).
Jun, E., Hsieh, G. & Reinecke, K. Types of motivation affect study selection, attention, and dropouts in online experiments. Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact. 1, 1–15 (2017).
Brändle, F., Binz, M. & Schulz, E. in The Drive for Knowledge: The Science of Human Information Seeking (eds. Cogliati Dezzi, I. et al.) 147–168 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022).
Leonard, J. A., Garcia, A. & Schulz, L. E. How adults’ actions, outcomes, and testimony affect preschoolers’ persistence. Child Dev. 91.4, 1254–1271 (2020).
Chu, J. & Schulz, L. E. Play, curiosity, and cognition. Annu. Rev. Dev. Psychol. 2, 317–343 (2020).
Murayama, K. A reward-learning framework of knowledge acquisition: an integrated account of curiosity, interest, and intrinsic–extrinsic rewards. Psychol. Rev. 129, 175–198 (2022).
Kosoy, E. et al. Exploring exploration: comparing children with RL agents in unified environments. In Proceedings of "Bridging AI and Cognitive Science Workshop", (2020).
Brändle, F., Stocks, L., Tenenbaum, J., Gershman, S. & Schulz, E. Empowerment contributes to exploration behaviour in a creative video game. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7, 1481–1489 (2023).
Pedersen, M. K. et al. Measuring cognitive abilities in the wild: validating a population-scale game-based cognitive assessment. Cogn. Sci. 47, e13308 (2023).
Hartshorne, J. K., de Leeuw, J. R., Goodman, N. D., Jennings, M. & O’Donnell, T. J. A thousand studies for the price of one: accelerating psychological science with Pushkin. Behav. Res. Methods 51, 1782–1803 (2019).
Thorne, H. T., Smith, J. J., Morgan, P. J., Babic, M. J. & Lubans, D. R. Video game genre preference, physical activity and screen-time in adolescent boys from low-income communities. J. Adolesc. 37, 1345–1352 (2014).
Jansz, J., Avis, C. & Vosmeer, M. Playing the Sims2: an exploration of gender differences in players’ motivations and patterns of play. N. Media Soc. 12, 235–251 (2010).
Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B. & Pinker, S. A critical period for second language acquisition: evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition 177, 263–277 (2018).
Awad, E. et al. The moral machine experiment. Nature 563, 59–64 (2018).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Allen, K. R. et al. Lifelong learning of cognitive styles for physical problem-solving: the effect of embodied experience. Psychonomic Bull. Rev., https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02400-4 (2023).
Ashmaig, O. et al. A platform for cognitive monitoring of neurosurgical patients during hospitalization. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 15, 702 (2021).
Andrews, G. Gameplay, gender, and socioeconomic status in two American high schools. E-Learn. Digit. Media 5, 199–213 (2008).
Duggan, M. Gaming and Gamers (Pew Research Center, 2015).
Chassy, P. & Gobet, F. Risk taking in adversarial situations: civilization differences in chess experts. Cognition 141, 36–40 (2015).
Morsch, F. & Feist, M. Fritz v.12 (Chessbase, 2009).
Holdaway, C. & Vul, E. Risk-taking in adversarial games: what can 1 billion online chess games tell us? Proc. Ann. Meeting Cogn. Sci. Soc. 43, https://escholarship.org/uc/item/403764rd (2021).
Coutrot, A. et al. Entropy of city street networks linked to future spatial navigation ability. Nature 604, 104–110 (2022).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Coughlan, G. et al. Toward personalized cognitive diagnostics of at-genetic-risk Alzheimer’s disease. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 9285–9292 (2019).
Chu, Y. & MacGregor, J. N. Human performance on insight problem solving: a review. J. Probl. Solving 3, 6 (2011).
Gick, M. L. & Holyoak, K. J. Analogical problem solving. Cogn. Psychol. 12, 306–355 (1980).
de Groot, A. D. Het Denken van den Schaker: Een Experimenteel-Psychologische Studie (Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij,1946).
Chase, W. G. & Simon, H. A. Perception in chess. Cogn. Psychol. 4, 55–81 (1973).
Gobet, F. et al. Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends Cogn. Sci. 5, 236–243 (2001).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Stafford, T. & Dewar, M. Tracing the trajectory of skill learning with a very large sample of online game players. Psychol. Sci. 25, 511–518 (2014).
Eisenberg, I. W. et al. Uncovering the structure of self-regulation through data-driven ontology discovery. Nat. Commun. 10, 2319 (2019).
Rafner, J. et al. Digital games for creativity assessment: strengths, weaknesses and opportunities. Creat. Res. J. 34, 28–54 (2022).
Schulz, E., Bertram, L., Hofer, M. & Nelson, J. D. Exploring the space of human exploration using Entropy Mastermind. Preprint at bioRxiv, https://doi.org/10.1101/540666 (2019).
Brown, H. R. et al. Crowdsourcing for cognitive science—the utility of smartphones. PLoS ONE 9, e100662 (2014).
Griffiths, T. L. Manifesto for a new (computational) cognitive revolution. Cognition 135, 21–23 (2015).
Almaatouq, A. et al. Scaling Up Experimental Social, Behavioral, and Economic Science (Computational Social Science Lab at the University of Pennsylvania, 2021).
Cross, L., co*ckburn, J., Yue, Y. & O’Doherty, J. P. Using deep reinforcement learning to reveal how the brain encodes abstract state-space representations in high-dimensional environments. Neuron 109, 724–738 (2021).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Peterson, J. C., Bourgin, D. D., Agrawal, M., Reichman, D. & Griffiths, T. L. Using large-scale experiments and machine learning to discover theories of human decision-making. Science 372, 1209–1214 (2021).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bongiorno, C. et al. Vector-based pedestrian navigation in cities. Nat. Comput. Sci. 1, 678–685 (2021).
Sullivan, J., Mei, M., Perfors, A., Wojcik, E. & Frank, M. C. SAYCam: a large, longitudinal audiovisual dataset recorded from the infant’s perspective. Open Mind 5, 20–29 (2021).
Rafferty, A. N., Zaharia, M. & Griffiths, T. L. Optimally designing games for behavioural research. Proc. R. Soc. A 470, 20130828 (2014).
Pymunk v.6.6.0, https://pymunk.org (Victor Blomqvist, 2023).
Juliani, A. et al. Unity: a general platform for intelligent agents. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1809.02627 (2020).
Mazarakis, A. & Bräuer, P. Gamification is working, but which one exactly? Results from an experiment with four game design elements. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. 39, 612–627 (2023).
Hodges, N. How to gamify cognitive tasks to increase participant engagement.YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2TBllI4t3v4&t=2s (Sage, 2023).
Silvertown, J. A new dawn for citizen science. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24, 467–471 (2009).
van Opheusden, B., Acerbi, L. & Ma, W. J. Unbiased and efficient log-likelihood estimation with inverse binomial sampling. PLoS Comput. Biol. 16, e1008483 (2020).
Acerbi, L. & Ma, W. J. Practical Bayesian optimization for model fitting with Bayesian adaptive direct search. Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst. 30 (2017).
Gravetter, F. J. & Forzano, L.-A. B. Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 4th edn (Wadsworth, 2012).
Lewkowicz, D. J. The concept of ecological validity: what are its limitations and is it bad to be invalid? Infancy 2, 437–450 (2001).
Lickliter, R. & Bahrick, L. E. The salience of multimodal sensory stimulation in early development: implications for the issue of ecological validity. Infancy 2, 451–467 (2001).
Yang, Q. et al. Monkey plays Pac-Man with compositional strategies and hierarchical decision-making. eLife 11, e74500 (2022).
Daw, N. D., Gershman, S. J., Seymour, B., Dayan, P. & Dolan, R. J. Model-based influences on humans’ choices and striatal prediction errors. Neuron 69, 1204–1215 (2011).
Kirchner, W. K. Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. J. Exp. Psychol. 55, 352–358 (1958).
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gershman, S. J. Uncertainty and exploration. Decision 6, 277–286 (2019).
Shallice, T. Specific impairments of planning. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 298, 199–209 (1982).
CAS Google Scholar
Costa-Gomes, M., Crawford, V. P. & Broseta, B. Cognition and behavior in normal-form games: an experimental study. Econometrica 69, 1193–1235 (2001).
Schaul, T. A video game description language for model-based or interactive learning. In 2013 IEEE Conference on Computational Intelligence in Games (CIG) 1–8 (IEEE, 2013).
